Chapter 5 Primary Activities

Hunting And Gathering

Human activities that generate income are known as economic activities. These are broadly categorized into four main groups: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Primary activities are those that involve the direct use and extraction of natural resources from the environment. This includes utilising elements like land, water, vegetation, and minerals.

Examples of primary activities include:

• Hunting and Gathering
• Pastoral activities (animal rearing)
• Fishing
• Forestry
• Agriculture
• Mining and Quarrying

Individuals involved in primary activities are often referred to as red-collar workers, a term reflecting the outdoor nature of their work.

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Hunting and gathering are considered the oldest known economic activities pursued by humans.

Early human societies relied heavily on their immediate environment for survival, obtaining food by hunting wild animals and collecting edible plants from nearby forests.

Hunting was a crucial means of survival, particularly for people living in harsh cold or extremely hot climates. Although modern technology has influenced fishing, coastal communities still practice it.

Historically, early hunters used simple tools made from natural materials like stones or twigs, which limited the number of animals they could kill. In contemporary times, illegal hunting or poaching has led to the extinction or endangerment of many animal species.

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Gathering activities are typically carried out in regions with challenging climatic conditions and are often associated with primitive societies.

People engaged in subsistence gathering collect plant and animal products primarily to meet their own basic needs for food, shelter, and clothing.

This type of activity requires minimal financial investment (low capital) and employs very basic technology. As a result, the amount of produce collected per person is low, and there is usually little to no surplus available for trade.

Subsistence gathering is found in specific high and low latitude zones:

• High Latitude Zones: Northern Canada, Northern Eurasia, Southern Chile.
• Low Latitude Zones: Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia, Interior parts of Southeast Asia.

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In modern times, some gathering has evolved into a market-oriented or commercial activity.

Commercial gatherers collect valuable plant resources like leaves, bark, and medicinal plants. After some basic processing, these products are sold in markets.

Various plant parts yield valuable commodities:

• Bark: Used for quinine, tannin extract, cork.
• Leaves: Used for beverages, drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch, fabrics.
• Nuts: Used for food and oils.
• Tree trunks: Yield rubber, balata, gums, resins.

For example, 'Chicle', the base material for chewing gum after the flavour dissipates, is derived from the milky sap of the zapota tree.

Despite some commercial aspects, gathering is unlikely to become globally significant. Products from gathering often struggle to compete in the world market, especially against synthetic alternatives which are frequently of better quality and lower cost.

Pastoralism

Following the realization that hunting wild animals for survival was not sustainable in the long term, humans likely began domesticating animals.

People in different geographical and climatic regions chose to domesticate animals native to their areas.

Today, animal rearing is practiced either for subsistence or on a commercial scale, depending on environmental factors and technological development.

Nomadic Herding

Nomadic herding, also known as pastoral nomadism, is a form of primitive subsistence activity.

Herders rely on their livestock for various needs, including food, clothing, shelter, tools, and transportation.

They move with their animals from place to place in search of adequate pasture and water resources. Each nomadic group traditionally uses a defined territory.

Different types of animals are commonly reared in specific regions:

• Tropical Africa: Cattle
• Sahara and Asiatic Deserts: Sheep, goats, camels
• Mountainous areas (Tibet, Andes): Yak, llamas
• Arctic and sub-Arctic areas: Reindeer

Nomadic herding is primarily found in three major belts:

• A large core region stretching from North Africa's Atlantic coast eastward through the Arabian peninsula, Mongolia, and Central China.
• The tundra region of Eurasia.
• Smaller areas in Southwest Africa and Madagascar in the Southern Hemisphere.

Movement patterns in nomadic herding can be either over long horizontal distances or vertically in mountainous areas.

The seasonal migration of people and their livestock between lowland pastures in winter and mountain pastures in summer is called transhumance. In the Himalayas, communities like Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, and Bhotiyas practice transhumance.

The number of nomadic herders and the areas they utilize have been declining due to factors such as the imposition of political boundaries and government initiatives for new settlements.

Commercial Livestock Rearing

Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestock rearing is a more organized and capital-intensive system.

It is largely associated with Western cultures and is practiced on permanent large landholdings called ranches.

Ranches are divided into fenced sections to control grazing. Animals are moved to a new section once the grass in the current one is depleted.

The number of animals on a pasture is carefully managed according to the land's carrying capacity (how many animals it can sustainably support).

This is a specialized form of farming, usually focusing on rearing only one type of animal, such as sheep, cattle, goats, or horses.

Products like meat, wool, hides, and skin are scientifically processed, packaged, and often exported to international markets.

Animal rearing on ranches follows scientific principles, emphasizing breeding programs, genetic improvement, disease prevention, and overall animal healthcare.

Important countries where commercial livestock rearing is practiced include New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and the United States of America.

Reindeer rearing is a form of commercial livestock rearing found in northern regions like Alaska, where it is significant for indigenous communities like the Eskimos.

Agriculture

Agriculture is practiced globally under a wide variety of environmental and socio-economic conditions, leading to diverse agricultural systems.

Different farming methods influence the types of crops grown and livestock raised.

Here are some of the main agricultural systems:

Subsistence Agriculture

In subsistence agriculture, most or all of the farm production is consumed by the farming family or community themselves, with little surplus for sale.

It is generally divided into two main categories:

• Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
• Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

Also known as shifting cultivation or 'slash and burn' agriculture, this method is common among tribal communities in tropical regions, including parts of Africa, South and Central America, and Southeast Asia.

The process involves clearing small plots of forest land, usually by cutting vegetation and then burning it. The ash provides temporary fertility to the soil.

Cultivation is carried out using simple tools like sticks and hoes on these small cleared patches.

After a few years (typically 3 to 5), the soil's fertility declines, prompting the farmers to abandon the plot and move to a new area of forest to repeat the process (shifting). They might return to previously used plots after a period of natural regeneration.

A major challenge faced by shifting cultivation today is the shortening of the jhum cycle (the time before farmers return to a plot) due to increased population pressure and reduced availability of forest land, leading to declining soil fertility.

Shifting cultivation is known by different local names in various regions:

• Jhuming: North-eastern states of India.
• Milpa: Central America and Mexico.
• Ladang: Indonesia and Malaysia.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

This type of agriculture is characteristic of densely populated areas in monsoon Asia.

There are two primary variations:

(i) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation:

• The main crop is rice.
• Landholdings are very small due to high population density.
• Farming is labour-intensive, often using family labour, leading to intensive use of land.
• Machinery use is minimal; most tasks are done manually.
• Soil fertility is maintained using farmyard manure.
• This method achieves a high yield per unit of land area but has low productivity per labourer due to the intensive manual work.

(ii) Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy:

• Practised in regions of monsoon Asia where geographical factors (relief, climate, soil) make rice cultivation difficult.
• Crops grown include wheat, soybean, barley, and sorghum (in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, North Japan), and wheat (western Indo-Gangetic plains) and millets (dry parts of western and southern India).
• Many characteristics are similar to wet paddy cultivation, but irrigation is often used.

Plantation Agriculture

Plantation agriculture was a system introduced by European colonists in their tropical colonies, primarily focused on large-scale production for profit.

Key plantation crops include tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, and pineapples.

Characteristic features of plantation farming:

• Large estates or plantations.
• Significant capital investment.
• Requires strong managerial and technical support.
• Uses scientific methods of cultivation.
• Specializes in growing a single crop (monoculture).
• Relies on cheap labour.
• Requires a well-developed transportation network connecting the plantation to factories and markets for export.

Examples of plantations established by colonial powers:

• French: Cocoa and coffee in West Africa.
• British: Tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber in Malaysia, sugarcane and bananas in West Indies.
• Spanish and Americans: Coconut and sugarcane in the Philippines.
• Dutch: Sugarcane in Indonesia (historically held a monopoly).
• Portuguese: Large coffee plantations (fazendas) in Brazil (some still managed by Europeans).

Today, the ownership of many plantations has shifted from foreign colonial powers to the governments or citizens of the independent countries.

Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

This system is practiced in the interior parts of semi-arid grasslands in the mid-latitudes.

The primary crop is wheat, although other grains like corn, barley, oats, and rye are also cultivated.

Farms are extremely large, often spanning hundreds or thousands of hectares.

All farming operations, from ploughing to harvesting, are highly mechanized due to the vast size of the farms.

A key outcome of this system is a low yield per unit area (acre) but a high yield per person. This is because mechanization allows a small number of workers to manage and harvest crops from very large land areas efficiently.

Major regions where this type of agriculture is well-developed include:

• Eurasian Steppes
• Canadian and American Prairies
• Pampas of Argentina
• Velds of South Africa
• Australian Downs
• Canterbury Plains of New Zealand

Mixed Farming

Mixed farming is found in highly developed regions of the world.

These areas include North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, and temperate latitudes of the Southern continents.

Farms in mixed farming are typically of moderate size.

Crops commonly grown include wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder crops, and root crops. Fodder crops (grown for animal feed) are a particularly important component.

Practices like crop rotation and intercropping are used to maintain soil fertility.

Equal emphasis is placed on both crop cultivation and animal husbandry (raising livestock).

Livestock such as cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry provide significant income alongside crop sales.

Mixed farming is characterized by substantial investment (high capital expenditure) in farm machinery, buildings, and extensive use of chemical fertilizers and green manures. It also requires skilled and knowledgeable farmers.

Dairy Farming

Dairy farming is a highly advanced and efficient system focused on rearing animals specifically for milk production.

It is a capital-intensive activity, requiring investment in animal sheds, storage for feed, and specialized milking machinery.

Significant attention is given to cattle breeding, health management, and access to veterinary services.

Dairy farming is also very labour-intensive, demanding continuous care in feeding and milking routines throughout the year, unlike crop farming which has seasonal breaks.

This type of farming is predominantly located near urban and industrial centers, which provide a ready market for fresh milk and dairy products.

Improvements in transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation, and preservation techniques have greatly extended the shelf life and distribution range of dairy products.

The three main commercial dairy farming regions are:

• North Western Europe (the largest)
• Canada
• Southeastern Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania

Mediterranean Agriculture

Mediterranean agriculture is a highly specialized form of commercial agriculture practiced in regions experiencing a Mediterranean climate (dry summers, mild, wet winters).

These regions are primarily located around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and North Africa (from Tunisia to the Atlantic coast), as well as in southern California, central Chile, southwestern parts of South Africa, and south and southwestern parts of Australia.

These areas are important suppliers of citrus fruits.

A notable specialty of the Mediterranean region is viticulture, or grape cultivation. High-quality grapes from this region are used to produce some of the world's finest wines. Inferior grapes are often dried to make raisins and currants.

Other products include olives and figs.

A significant advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is the ability to grow valuable crops like fruits and vegetables during the winter months, when there is high demand in markets in Europe and North America.

Market Gardening And Horticulture

Market gardening and horticulture focus on cultivating high-value crops such as vegetables, fruits, and flowers specifically for sale in urban markets.

Farms are typically small and situated close to urban centers with affluent consumers, relying on efficient transportation links.

This system is both labour and capital intensive, involving significant use of irrigation, High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, greenhouses, and artificial heating in colder climates to ensure year-round production.

It is well-developed in densely populated industrial areas like northwestern Europe, the northeastern United States, and Mediterranean regions.

The Netherlands, for example, is famous for its specialization in growing flowers and horticultural crops, particularly tulips, which are exported worldwide.

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Within market gardening, when farmers specialize solely in growing vegetables, it is known as Truck Farming. The term derives from the historical practice where the distance of the farm from the market was limited by how far a truck could travel overnight.

A modern development, particularly in the industrial regions of Western Europe and North America, is Factory Farming.

Factory farming involves raising livestock (especially poultry and cattle) in confined spaces like stalls or pens.

Animals are fed manufactured feedstuffs and are kept under close supervision for disease prevention. This requires substantial capital investment in infrastructure, specialized machinery, veterinary services, and controlled environmental conditions (heating, lighting).

Key elements of factory farming include selecting and scientifically breeding animals for desired traits.

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Beyond the type of crops or livestock, agricultural systems can also be classified by their farming organisation. This is influenced by land ownership patterns and government policies.

Co-Operative Farming

In co-operative farming, a group of farmers voluntarily establish a co-operative society. They pool their resources (like land, labour, or capital) to achieve more efficient and profitable farming.

Importantly, in this model, individual farmers typically retain ownership of their land, but farming operations are conducted collectively under the co-operative structure.

The co-operative society assists members by facilitating the procurement of necessary farming inputs, ensuring favourable terms for selling produce, and helping with the processing of quality products at lower costs.

Originating over a century ago, co-operative farming has been particularly successful in several Western European countries, including Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Italy. Denmark is often cited as a prime example, with a high rate of farmer participation in co-operatives.

Collective Farming

Collective farming is based on the principle of social ownership of the means of production (land, tools, livestock) and working together through collective labour.

A notable model of collective farming was the 'Kolkhoz' in the erstwhile Soviet Union. It was introduced with the aims of improving agricultural inefficiency and increasing production to achieve self-sufficiency.

Under the Kolkhoz system, farmers pooled their resources, including land, livestock, and labour. However, they were usually permitted to keep small personal plots to cultivate crops for their own daily consumption needs.

Mining

The discovery and use of minerals mark significant periods in human history, often referred to as the Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

In ancient times, mineral use was largely limited to crafting tools, utensils, and weapons.

Modern mining, as a large-scale activity, truly began with the Industrial Revolution, and its importance has continued to grow globally.

Factors Affecting Mining Activity

The profitability of mining operations depends on a combination of physical and economic factors:

(i) Physical Factors:

• The size of the mineral deposit.
• The grade or quality of the ore (concentration of the mineral).
• The mode of occurrence or how the deposit is found (e.g., surface deposit, deep vein).

(ii) Economic Factors:

• The demand for the specific mineral in the market.
• The availability and cost of appropriate technology for extraction and processing.
• The availability of capital to develop the necessary infrastructure (machinery, transport, facilities).
• The cost and availability of labour.
• Transport costs to move the mineral from the mine to processing plants and markets.

Methods Of Mining

Mining methods vary depending on how the mineral occurs and the nature of the ore body. The two main types are surface mining and underground mining.

Surface Mining (Open-cast or Strip Mining):

• This is the simplest and most cost-effective method for extracting minerals located close to the ground surface.
• It involves removing the overlying rock and soil (overburden) to access the mineral deposit.
• Overhead costs related to safety precautions and specialized equipment are relatively low.
• This method allows for large quantities of minerals to be extracted quickly.

Underground Mining (Shaft Method):

• Used when mineral deposits are located deep beneath the surface.
• Requires sinking vertical shafts from the surface down to the mineral level.
• Underground tunnels or galleries radiate from these shafts to reach the ore.
• Minerals are brought to the surface through these passages using specialized lifts and haulage systems.
• This method necessitates complex systems for drilling, transport, and crucially, ventilation to ensure safety.
• Underground mining is inherently more hazardous due to risks like poisonous gases, fires, flooding, and the possibility of tunnels collapsing (caving in).

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Globally, there's a trend where developed economies are reducing their involvement in the mining, processing, and refining stages, often due to high labour costs.

In contrast, developing countries, which often have large labour forces and are focused on economic growth, are becoming increasingly important in these activities.

Several countries in Africa, South America, and Asia derive a significant portion (over fifty per cent) of their national income solely from mineral resources.

Exercises

This section contains questions designed to test comprehension and application of the chapter's concepts.

Choose The Right Answer From The Four Alternatives Given Below

Objective type questions requiring selection of the correct option from multiple choices.

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words

Short answer questions requiring concise explanations of key concepts.

Answer The Following Questions In Not More Than 150 Words

Longer answer questions requiring more detailed explanations and comparisons.

Project/Activity

Suggestions for practical projects or activities to enhance learning and understanding of primary activities through observation and interaction.